Chinese tea sets are an integral part of the Chinese tea culture, reflecting the development of our tea-drinking culture over thousands of years.
I. The Interchangeable Use of Food, Wine, and Tea Utensils Before the Han Dynasty, China did not have specialized tea-drinking utensils; they were used interchangeably with food and wine utensils. Tea was boiled in pots used for cooking, and consumed in bowls meant for drinking water and wine. In the Jin Dynasty, Lu Lin’s ‘Four Kings’ Uprising’ records ‘waiting for a pottery basin to hold tea’, indicating that Emperor Hui of Jin still used a basin (a pottery utensil for eating) for drinking tea. There were no records of tea sets, just as there were no ‘tea’ characters in ancient times.
1. The Emergence of the Term ‘Tea Set’ With the popularity of tea drinking in the Han Dynasty, not only were there markets for buying tea, but also ‘tea houses’ specifically for drinking tea. Consequently, tea sets began to emerge. The earliest mention of tea sets is found in Wang Bao’s ‘Servant’s Agreement’ from the Han Dynasty, which states: ‘All utensils for boiling tea are prepared, tea is bought in Wuyang.’ At this time, there were no specialized tea utensils, but the utensils for drinking tea had already become quite particular. Good bowls had to be selected, and they had to be thoroughly cleaned.
2. The First Dedicated Tea-Boiling Ding During the Three Kingdoms, the Jin, and the Northern and Southern Dynasties, serving tea to guests had become a ritual, and tea utensils began to gradually separate from wine and food utensils. Zuo Si’s ‘Charming Girl Poem’ from the Jin Dynasty depicts ‘the heart is eager for the tea, blowing against the ding to melt.’ This indicates that there was already a dedicated ding for boiling tea. The bowl for drinking tea was also selected to have a wide mouth with a foot and an exposed bottom.
3. The First Dedicated Tea Cup with Glazed Pottery The development of glazed pottery propelled the separation of tea utensils. During the Jin and Northern and Southern Dynasties, a tea cup with a saucer appeared, with the cup and saucer connected by glaze. The shape was simple and rustic, with the entire body covered in green glaze, becoming the first dedicated tea cup for drinking tea.
4. The Prototype of the Tea Pot – Chicken Head Soup Bottle During the Three Kingdoms period, a soup bottle for holding and pouring water appeared. It featured an exquisite design, with a spout in the shape of a standard parabola, a round and small water outlet, powerful water flow, and accurate foot placement. On one side of the pot was a chicken head, initially decorative, but by the Eastern Jin Dynasty, it evolved into a hollow bone shape, allowing water to flow into the pot through it. Because of the chicken head, it was called the chicken head soup bottle. After improvements during the Sui Dynasty, by the early Tang Dynasty, the chicken head soup bottles produced by Yue Kiln were very exquisite and were later gradually replaced by ewers.
II. The Development of Dedicated Tea Utensils As China’s tea culture entered a prosperous period in the Tang Dynasty, tea drinking became extremely common, with ‘no matter monks or laymen, all taking tea as a drink.’ The ‘way of tea’ was born, and Lu Yu wrote the ‘Classic of Tea,’ which spurred the development of tea utensils. Especially with the rise of China’s ceramic industry at that time, it further promoted the rapid development of tea utensils in China. Lu Yu’s ‘Classic of Tea – Four on Utensils’ describes more than 20 specialized tools for drinking tea. In 1987, gilded tea sets and colored glass tea bowls unearthed in the underground palace of Famen Temple in Shaanxi are typical examples of Tang Dynasty court tea utensils, which were very luxurious and exquisite.
In folk culture, the most common tea-drinking vessels are ceramic bowls and cups. The difference between a bowl and a cup is that the bowl is larger and can be used for eating and drinking, while the cup is smaller and designed solely for tea. Cups have a wide opening, a shallow belly, and a sloping, straight wall with a jade-like base, often accompanied by a shallow dish-like tea saucer.
1. Tang Dynasty’s Tea Sets: The Southern Green and Northern White porcelain tea sets highlighted the color of tea, preserved its aroma, and did not burn the hands, leading to the rapid development of specialized ceramic tea sets. The most famous kilns of the Tang Dynasty were the two major ones in the north and south. In the south, there was the Yue Kiln in Yuyao, Zhejiang, which specialized in producing celadon tea sets. In the north, there was the Xing Kiln in Xingtai, Hebei, which specialized in producing white porcelain tea sets. The Tang Dynasty poet Pi Rixiu once wrote: ‘The people of Xing and Yue, both can make porcelain, round like the moon’s soul falling, light like the cloud’s spirit rising.’ Lu Yu also said in ‘The Classic of Tea’: ‘Yue porcelain is like jade,’ ‘Xing porcelain resembles silver,’ ‘Xing porcelain is like snow,’ ‘Yue porcelain is like ice. ‘ White porcelain tea cups are relatively thick, with no protruding rim on the outside. Celadon tea cups have ‘no curled lip at the mouth, a shallow bottom that is curled.’ In the Tang Dynasty, Xing Kiln’s white tea cups were ‘used by people of all ranks,’ and Yue Kiln’s celadon had the honor of ‘being offered to our monarch first.’ The northern and southern kilns produced a large number of celadon and white porcelain tea sets. 2. Song Dynasty’s Five Great Kilns: In the Song Dynasty, tea drinking became even more popular and particular. Especially with the rise of tea dueling, the pursuit of excellence in tea utensils was further promoted, with famous kilns and cups competing to emerge. The most representative are the following five great kilns. (1) Ru Kiln. Located in Baofeng, Henan. During the Song Dynasty, Baofeng belonged to Ruzhou, hence the name Ru Kiln, which mainly produced celadon and was renowned for its pure glaze color. (2) Guan Kiln. A state-run kiln, specifically for producing porcelain for the royal family and nobility. It was established in Kaifeng during the Northern Song Dynasty and in Hangzhou during the Southern Song Dynasty. In the Ming Dynasty, Jing Kiln (Jingdezhen) was added. Guan Kiln mainly produced celadon, placing special emphasis on the beauty of the celadon glaze, with a craftsmanship that exudes a grand and elegant court style. (3) Jun Kiln. Located in Yu County, Henan. During the Song Dynasty, Yu County belonged to Junzhou, hence the name Jun Kiln. It was a northern celadon faction that invented the ‘kiln color-changing glaze technique’ in the history of porcelain making, with glaze colors that are green with a hint of red, as brilliant as rosy clouds. Such as the sky-blue glaze tea cup with a saucer and the rose spot tea bowl are peerless treasures. (4) Ge Kiln. Located in Longquan, Zhejiang. The Longquan Kiln had two brothers of the Zhang family, both mainly producing celadon. When selecting the top five kilns in the country at that time, the elder brother’s kiln was chosen, hence the name Ge Kiln. Ge Kiln is famous for its crackle patterns, with a uniform and smooth glaze both inside and out, crystal clear and moist. (5) Ding Kiln. Located in Quyang, Hebei. During the Song Dynasty, Quyang belonged to Dingzhou, hence the name Ding Kiln. Ding Kiln mainly produced Guangdong white porcelain, known for its dense and delicate porcelain quality, thin and lustrous, and famous for its rich and colorful decorative patterns, such as yellow glaze wood grain porcelain tea cups. 3. Tea Whisking Treasure Bowls – Black Glazed Cups: The ‘boiling tea method’ of the Tang Dynasty had evolved into the ‘tea whisking method’ by the Song Dynasty, with a surge in tea dueling, advocating for white tea color, which promoted the development of black glaze, making black glaze stand out and almost replacing celadon and white glaze.The tribute tea center during the Song Dynasty was located in Jianyang, which naturally made Jian Kiln the leader in black glaze. Particularly, the black glaze rabbit-hair bowls became invaluable treasures for tea dueling, with their glaze as dark as lacquer, and radiating stripes at the bottom of the bowl, smooth and fine like rabbit hairs. When tea is poured into the bowl, it shines with silver light, and the patterns of the bowl and tea intermingle, rippling like water marks. Skilled ‘tea pointing’ can bring forth images of flowers, birds, fish, and insects, known as ‘water ink paintings’, reaching a high state of tea pointing. There was a monk named Fuquan in the Song Dynasty, who was a master of tea pointing. The tea he pointed could transform into everlasting paintings within the bowl. He wrote a poem saying: ‘In the bowl, water ink paintings are born, a skillful art that cannot be learned. To laugh at Lu Hongjian at that time, he won a good reputation by brewing tea.’ During the Tang and Song periods, celadon, white porcelain, and black-glazed tea sets were the three main bodies. Other tea sets made of gold, silver, copper, tin, jade, stone, bamboo, and wood did appear but were not popular, hence not mentioned here. 4. The predecessor of the teapot, the soup bottle, was improved in the Song Dynasty’s tea pointing practice, becoming a small and light tool specifically for pouring water. The soup bottle was a type of tea set that developed in the early Tang Dynasty, replacing the cumbersome tea ‘tripod’ and ‘pot’. By the mid-Song Dynasty, tea killing was popular, and there was no need to boil tea, only water, so the soup bottle became a specialized tool for pouring water. Therefore, it needed to be small in capacity and light in weight, with a lid, flat bottom, and a thin, long spout projecting above the bottle mouth. The outlet was round and thin to facilitate reasonable control of water flow during tea pointing. The soup bottle laid the foundation for the later emergence of the teapot. Thus, tea, along with the development of history, evolved from being consumed to being drunk, and people’s way of drinking tea developed from boiling to tea pointing, with continuous improvement in the requirements for tea sets and tea quality. Especially the emergence of tea pointing method further showed the people’s different material, cultural enjoyment, and spiritual pursuits from those of the past. Even the tea pointing method had a profound influence on neighboring countries, especially on Japanese tea ceremony. III. Ming Dynasty Tea Utensils The Ming Dynasty was a reforming era for China’s tea ‘innovative picking and making’ and ‘creating a thousand-year tea drinking style’. Zhu Yuanzhang, in the 24th year of Hongwu (1391), ordered to abolish the group tea and promote the development of loose tea. Famous teas emerged one after another, and tea drinking changed from tea pointing to tea brewing. The tea brewing process was simplified, and the tea tools were reduced. 1. From complexity to simplicity, tea sets were reduced. The older tea cakes of the Tang Dynasty could only use the ‘boiling tea method’. The fine Longtuanfeng cakes of the Song Dynasty abandoned boiling and used the ‘tea pointing method’. Regardless of the ‘boiling tea method’ or ‘tea pointing method’, both were complex procedures with numerous tea tools. In the Ming Dynasty, loose tea brewing became simpler. Just put a little tea in a cup (pot), and it can be drunk after being rinsed with boiling water. So, tea brewing in the Song Dynasty was also called ‘tea picking method’. At this time, tea drinking only required a pot for boiling water and a cup (pot) for brewing tea.
Since loose tea is involved, storage of tea becomes crucial, hence the primary tea utensils consist of three major components: kettles, teapots, and tea storage jars.
2. The rise of teapots evolved from soup bottles. Teapots, compared to bowls and cups, are easier to preserve heat and aroma, are clean and hygienic, suitable for individual or shared drinking. They are ideal for brewing loose tea. Teapots gradually became smaller, as recorded in ‘Tea Notes’: ‘Teapots are valued for their small size, with one pot per guest, allowing them to pour and drink at their leisure, which is the essence of enjoying tea.’ During the Ming Dynasty, teapots were primarily white porcelain from Jingdezhen, later followed by blue and white porcelain teapots and Zisha teapots from Yixing. The development of Yixing Zisha teapots, apart from their unique characteristics, also benefited from the emergence of loose tea and the rise of tea brewing methods in the Ming Dynasty. 3. The transformation of tea bowls from black to white is due to the fact that most loose teas in the Ming Dynasty were green teas. When tea is brewed in a bowl or cup, the green liquid and leaves are more pleasing to the eye against a white background. Black does not have this effect. Therefore, the black tea bowls that dominated in the Song Dynasty gradually faded from the tea utensil market with the disappearance of ‘dian cha’, and hare’s fur cups became historical artifacts. Due to the need for brewing tea, white porcelain became increasingly refined, with higher artistic value, beautiful shapes, and fine materials, known as ‘sweet white’. Jingdezhen’s porcelain kilns became the national center for white porcelain, and during the Ming Dynasty, it was once designated as the official kiln. The white porcelain tea sets produced by Jing Kiln are praised as ‘thin as paper, white as jade, sounding like a chime, and clear as a mirror’, with exquisite craftsmanship, becoming art treasures and elevating tea utensils to an extremely important position. In addition to abandoning black in favor of white, Yixing’s Zisha tea sets also rose rapidly. It made many tea drinkers fall in love with the simple, reddish-brown, beautifully shaped Zisha pots that ‘do not take away the tea’s aroma and have no smell of boiled soup.’ 4. The rise in the status of tea jars is due to the fact that most loose teas in the Ming Dynasty were green teas that were prone to spoilage. Therefore, the storage of tea became particularly important. To meet this need, various kilns produced ‘ying’ for holding tea, with different shapes, all elegant and generous. Such as the blue and white porcelain tea jars from Jingdezhen and the Zisha tea jars from Yixing. Overall, the main tea utensils in the Ming Dynasty were white porcelain pots, Zisha pots, bowls (cups), and jars. 4. Qing Dynasty Tea Utensils The tea utensils of the Qing Dynasty basically continued those of the previous dynasty, with no fundamental changes. Since tea drinking still followed the Ming Dynasty’s brewing method, the changes in tea utensils were only more detailed and precise within the original framework. However, there were several highlights. 1. The craftsmanship of tea utensils saw significant development. The art of making teapots in the Qing Dynasty reached an unprecedented prosperity during the reigns of Kangxi, Yongzheng, and Qianlong, with the production of ceramic tea utensils reaching an extremely high level, with a variety of colors and a competition for beauty.Jingdezhen porcelain tea sets draw on the strengths of various glaze colors, display the ingenuity of craftsmanship, and feature a wide variety of ever – new patterns. Besides producing polychrome porcelain, two new glazes, enamel and famille rose, have been innovatively produced. Thus, Chinese porcelain tea sets, evolving from celadon, white porcelain, black porcelain to polychrome porcelain, have reached an exquisite level. 2. The Emergence of New Tea Sets Another highlight of tea sets in the Qing Dynasty is the continuous appearance of new materials and tea sets, presenting a flourishing scene. For example, bodiless lacquer tea sets from Fujian, tin tea sets, tea sets made of jade, crystal and agate. Bamboo tea sets from Sichuan, plant (such as coconut) tea sets from Hainan, etc. emerged one after another, each with a unique shape and style. 3. The Rise of the Three – Piece Bowl Although the covered bowl originated in the Tang Dynasty, it became extremely popular during the Kangxi period of the Qing Dynasty and became the main type of tea set. From the imperial court to the nobility and then to the common people, this three – piece “Three – Talent Bowl” became popular. It implies the Confucian philosophy of the harmony of heaven, earth and humanity. When using it to drink tea, the lid is good for keeping clean and warm, and the gradually converging inner wall is conducive to the deposition of tea leaves. Moreover, it can gather the aroma of tea, which lingers for a long time. The wide mouth of the bowl is convenient for pouring water, the gradually converging inner wall is good for tea deposition, and the saucer can prevent the tea from overflowing and avoid burning hands. When tasting tea with it, hold the bowl with one hand and the lid with the other. First, gently stir the tea leaves floating on the water surface with the lid to make the tea soup tumble up and down, so that the tea taste is evenly distributed, and then savor the tea aroma. It shows a dignified and calm demeanor. The covered bowl can be used not only for individual tasting but also to replace the teapot, paired with small tea cups for several people to drink. There are various types of covered bowls, but the more solemn one is the yellow – glazed coiled – dragon covered bowl, mostly used in the imperial court. The blue – and – white porcelain covered bowl is mostly used by literati and refined scholars. 4. Contemporary Tea Utensils In modern times, tea utensils are colorful and diverse. This is because today, there are thousands of varieties in six major tea categories in China. Different teas require different brewing methods and suitable tea utensils. China has a vast territory and 56 ethnic groups. Each ethnic group has different requirements for tea and preferences for tea utensils. Therefore, tea utensils need to be diverse. Generally speaking, there are eight categories: ancient pottery tea utensils, fine porcelain tea utensils, purple sand tea utensils, metal tea utensils, glass tea utensils, lacquer tea utensils, stone and jade tea utensils, and bamboo and wood tea utensils. But currently, the most widely used are purple sand tea utensils, porcelain tea utensils and glass tea utensils. 1. The Diversified Purple Sand Tea Utensils Purple sand tea utensils are mainly produced in Yixing, Jiangsu. Legend has it that in ancient times, a strange monk discovered clay in red, purple and beige colors on Shushan Mountain in Yixing. This kind of clay can be fired into utensils of various colors. The fired utensils will emit a faint purple light on the surface and present a beautiful three – dimensional particle feeling. Therefore, people call it “purple sand”.
The emergence of purple clay tea sets has promoted the artistry of tea drinking, while the art of tea ceremony has in turn facilitated the appearance of various purple clay tea sets. Purple clay tea sets possess innate characteristics. They have numerous fine pores and a high gas density, featuring good air permeability and the ability to ‘breathe’. When heated, the pores open and release the tea fragrance stored in the pot. When the pot cools down, it absorbs the tea fragrance. Moreover, purple clay pots can withstand sudden temperature changes, do not alter the taste of brewed tea, and the tea left overnight in them will not turn sour.
Purple clay tea sets come in diverse shapes and colors, being both beautiful and elegant, with refined surface decorations. They come in a wide variety of forms. In terms of shape, they can be mainly divided into three categories: geometric shapes, natural shapes, and ribbed patterns. The various colors of purple clay are fired by the maker’s ingenuity in a kiln at a temperature range of 1000°C to 1250°C. Dozens of colors, such as purple, brown, red, black, yellow, and cyan, are all warm, natural, and will never fade. The surface decoration of purple clay tea sets is elegant and often integrated with the arts of literature, calligraphy, painting, and seal carving of literati and scholars. 2. Porcelain tea sets that are warm and delicate Porcelain is one of China’s most famous inventions and a precious cultural heritage unique to the Chinese nation, making a huge contribution to world civilization. Overall, porcelain tea sets in China can be classified into celadon, white porcelain, black porcelain, and colored porcelain. (1) Celadon tea sets as warm as jade Celadon originated in the Shang Dynasty and had become the mainstream of Chinese porcelain glaze by the Tang Dynasty. It is made of a transparent light green celadon glaze with a vitreous texture. The porcelain color is pure, vivid green, as clear as ice and as warm as jade. The made tea sets have a light and thin texture, smooth and soft. Lu Yu highly recommended them. He said, ‘Yue porcelain is the best’, ‘Yue porcelain is like jade’, and ‘Yue porcelain is green, and green enhances the tea’. The most famous porcelain kiln in the Tang Dynasty was the Yue Kiln in Yuyao, Zhejiang. For example, the celadon lotus cup fired by the Yue Kiln was a renowned cup of its time. By the Song Dynasty, the Ge Kiln celadon cups among the five major porcelain kilns had reached a state of ‘perfection’. In the Ming Dynasty, celadon tea sets were even more famous at home and abroad for their delicate texture, dignified shape, clear blue glaze color, and elegant patterns. In the Ming Dynasty, stir-fried green tea was popular. Brewing tea in a celadon tea cup, with a greenish tint, could better set off the beautiful green color of the tea soup. Therefore, celadon tea sets reached their peak in the Ming Dynasty. (2) White porcelain tea sets that are delicate and transparent White porcelain originated in the Northern and Southern Dynasties. At that time, the glaze color was not purely white but had a grayish tint. It was not until the Xing Kiln in Hebei in the Tang Dynasty that high-quality white porcelain was fired. The white porcelain tea sets produced by the Xing Kiln have a delicate and transparent texture, with firm and thin walls, pure color, stable shape, and smooth lines. In the Tang Dynasty, tea was boiled, and the tea soup had a relatively strong color. Drinking tea from a white porcelain bowl could better set off the bright tea soup. Therefore, white porcelain tea sets were very popular in the Tang Dynasty. After the Yuan Dynasty, the white porcelain tea sets from Jingdezhen were even more perfect, delicate, pure, and elegant, decorated with famous people’s calligraphy and paintings on the outside, with stronger artistic flavor and higher value.The emergence of white porcelain broke the monopoly of celadon tea sets and laid a solid technological foundation for the development of blue and white porcelain, polychrome porcelain, and famille rose porcelain tea sets.
(3) The black porcelain tea cups as black as lacquer. Black porcelain originated in the late Tang Dynasty and reached its peak in the Song Dynasty. The rise of black porcelain tea sets benefited from the “tea whisking” in the Song Dynasty. People in the Song Dynasty admired white tea and the trend of tea competitions was popular. The tea-drinking method in the Song Dynasty was the “tea whisking method”. People needed to whisk white foam in the cup and prepare the “water painting”. Especially, Emperor Huizong of the Song Dynasty, Zhao Ji, wrote “The Treatise on Tea of Daguan”, which pushed the trend of tea competitions to a climax. Black tea cups were helpful in setting off the whiteness of tea and beneficial for the appearance of the “water painting”. Therefore, the Jian Kiln became a famous kiln production site across the country and fired many black-glazed cups suitable for tea competitions in the Song Dynasty. For example, the hare’s fur cup was the best treasure bowl for tea competitions. Its glaze surface was as black as lacquer, and there were radial stripes at the bottom of the cup. The texture was smooth and as thin as hare’s fur. When the tea soup was poured into the cup, it emitted colorful glitters, making it very suitable for tea competitions. (4) The colorful polychrome porcelain tea sets. Polychrome porcelain tea sets originated in the Tang Dynasty and thrived in the Ming and Qing dynasties. They developed on the basis of white porcelain tea sets and were a symbol of the peak of China’s porcelain development. They absorbed all the advantages of celadon and white porcelain and added the firing of colored glazes, thus perfectly combining China’s painting and calligraphy art with porcelain-making technology. Among the polychrome porcelain tea sets, the most famous ones were the four categories of tea sets fired by the Jingdezhen Kiln: blue and white porcelain, linglong porcelain, famille rose porcelain, and colored glaze porcelain. Jingdezhen porcelain started in the Han Dynasty and became prosperous in the Tang and Song dynasties. Celadon and white porcelain became famous all over the world. During the Yuan and Ming dynasties, Jingdezhen became the national porcelain-firing center and was once named the official kiln in the Ming Dynasty. The Kangxi, Yongzheng, and Qianlong reigns in the Qing Dynasty were the most prosperous, and it became the world-famous “Porcelain Capital”. In the Tang Dynasty, Jingdezhen’s tea sets included tea cups and ewers. In the Song Dynasty, there were broad-brimmed hats bowls, tea cups, and ewers. In the Yuan Dynasty, there were ewers, tea bowls, tea cups, and tea saucers. In the Ming Dynasty, there were Buddhist hat pots, pressing-hand cups, and flat pots. In the Qing Dynasty, in addition to the tea sets of previous generations, there also appeared loop-handled pots, handled pots, flat square pots, and tea cups. The largest number of Jingdezhen porcelain tea sets were blue and white porcelain tea sets. What people talked about most was the blue and white porcelain tea sets that were “as thin as paper, as white as jade, as resonant as a chime stone, and as bright as a mirror”. 3. The crystal-clear glass tea sets. In ancient times, glass tea sets were called colored glaze tea sets. The earliest reference was the colored glaze tea bowl unearthed from the underground palace of Famen Temple in Shaanxi. This shows that China’s glass production started in the Tang Dynasty. Although the shapes were simple and primitive and the transparency was low, it was the prototype of modern glass tea sets in China. In ancient times, due to the low scientific and technological level, backward production, high cost, and high value of colored glaze tea sets, most of them were used for the royal family to offer to the Buddha. In the Song Dynasty, unique high-lead colored glaze emerged. In the Yuan Dynasty, some large-scale colored glaze workshops appeared among the people. In the Qing Dynasty, Liuliting appeared in Beijing. The colored glaze products made were expensive and difficult to be popularized among the people.Due to the advancement of science and the continuous improvement of glass manufacturing techniques, the once precious glass of ancient times has become affordable glass, and glass tea sets have become widespread in ordinary households.
Glass tea sets are made from mixtures containing quartz sand, limestone, and soda ash, which are melted at high temperatures, shaped, and then cooled. They are aesthetically pleasing, crystal clear, and eye-catching, making them highly suitable for brewing tea, especially green tea. Modern glass manufacturing is simple and easy to operate, which allows for a variety of shapes and decorations in glass tea sets. Colors range from colorless to various colored glasses. Types include crystal glass, metal glass, frosted glass, and opal glass, among others. Glass tea sets encompass everything from tea cups, tea bowls, tea saucers, teapots, tea trays, tea spoons, tea strainers, to tea trays, and almost all tea utensils can be made from glass. Thus, glass tea sets have become the most common, widely used, and popular tea-drinking utensils today.
